Do You Need Answers to Some of Life's Basic Questions?
For Example:
How may I make ethical decision sensibly?
What is “the good life” for me?
What is my recreation quotient? (“RQ”)?
Am I a socio-political liberal or a socio-political conservative?
For more information, or to order,
click on one of the other of the book covers
at www.earlezeigler.com
"A Down-to-Earth Approach to
Ethical Decision-Making
Earle F. Zeigler
Humankind has won a recognizable semblance of victory over what is often a harsh physical environment despite the frequent tricks played on us by Mother Nature. Yet, any reasonably intelligent person in society today realizes that people have not yet been able to remove much of the social insecurity present in our lives as we seek to live together peacefully and constructively.
In an effort to help us, many philosophers and theologians have searched down through the ages for a normative ethical system that espouses a moral base upon which people could and should base their conduct. However, today as we approach the year 2000 C.E. there is still no non-controversial foundation on which the entire structure of ethics can be built. Perhaps there will never be.
In considering humankind's basic problems, the philosopher, E.A. Burtt, believed that the greatest danger to our future "lies in the disturbing emotions and destructive passions that he [man, primarily] has not yet overcome; the greatest promise lies in his capacity for a sensitive understanding of himself and his human fellows."
So, if our "distorting emotions and destructive passions" do indeed represent the greatest danger to the future, the application of a sound ethical approach to personal and professional living can be of inestimable assistance to people who are truly seeking a "sensitive understanding" of themselves and their associates.
However, as life becomes ever more complex in the late 20th century, there are at least six major ethical routes to decision-making extant in what we call the Western world. Everything considered, it can be argued that the availability "ethical smorgasbord" confronting humankind is in sad shape. Nevertheless, daily problems related to ethics and human values abound, problems that should somehow be resolved through sound ethical decision-making.
Further, the present way in which a young person initially learns how to make rational ethical decisions in North American society is also inadequate. A child and young person typically acquires such competency--or lack of it--implicitly through everyday experiences, including what direct guidance his/her elders may offer.
This laissez-faire approach is simply insufficient as the young person develops reasoning powers. We are faced, therefore, with a situation where we should be
helping young people to learn explicitly how to develop their own conscious convictions in which the mind leads and the emotions follow to the greatest possible extent.
In the past, moral philosophers offered general guidance as to what to do, what to seek, and how to treat others--injunctions that we should understand even today. As a rule, however, philosophers have not tried to preach to their adherents in the same way that theologians have felt constrained to do. These earlier moral philosophers did, however, offer practical advice that included a great variety of pronouncements on what was good and bad, or right and wrong. For example, the terms right and wrong apply only to acts, but the terms good and bad refer to (1) the effects of acts; (2) the motives which caused the act; (3) the intention of the person carrying out the act; and (4) the person who is the agent of a particular act.
Thus, we might say correctly that "although Smith is a good person, he acted wrongly--yet with good motives and intentions--when he punched Jones and broke his jaw. The consequences were bad, even though Jones had made some threatening gestures at Smith's smaller brother" (this example adapted from the philosopher Hospers).
In retrospect we now appreciate that values, morals, and ethical standards underwent an identity crisis in the 1960s, and the pendulum has been swinging back and forth quite violently ever since. Also, present-day academic philosophers in North America have largely turned their attention to so-called analytic philosophy with its detailed attention to language and related conceptual analysis.
As a result, insight into the human values and morality struggle has devolved to a small group of philosophers, and a much larger group of theologians, politicians, playwrights, comedians, and others. And yet no one can deny the great importance of ethics and human values. Nor can the belief be refuted that the question of personal and professional ethics is indeed on many people's front burner and has really been in a continuing state of flux in the last half of this century. The subject is actually so important that it truly demands careful monitoring at all times.
So what is one to do in what appears to be a "rudderless" world? For one reasonable answer that can be used by most people in a civilized society as a basis for elementary decision-making, a person could well consider a "trivium" approach recommended by ethicist Dick Fox of Cleveland State University to his undergraduate students. (The word trivium has been coined from the Latin meaning three roads converging into one--one ethical solution in this case.)
Proceeding, then, on the assumption that a reasonably intelligent person should be able to work out rationally what right and wrong ethical behavior is, a basic trivium approach is recommended for implementation as experience is being gained. This is one in which there is a progression from the thought of (earlier philosophers) Kant, to Mill, and Aristotle. It consists of the application of three "tests" (phrased as QUESTIONS) to be applied when one wishes to analyze an ethical problem or dilemma prior to making a decision as to which course to follow. These tests are called: (1) the test of consistency, or universalizability; (2) the test of consequences; and (3) the test of intentions.
Immanuel Kant's test of universalizability (or consistency), Step No. 1, is based on the idea that one should "act only on that maxim which one can will to be a universal law." So, despite some inherent weaknesses, I am nevertheless recommending that your first question to yourself when considering a specific response or action in regard to an ethical problem confronting you should be: "IS IT POSSIBLE OR DESIRABLE TO UNIVERSALIZE THIS ACTION TO ALL PEOPLE ON EARTH?
John Stuart Mill's test of consequences, Step No. 2, has been taken from the heritage of philosophic utilitarianism. Its base is the maxim "Act so as to bring the greatest good possible." So, invoking the test of consequences involves asking WHAT THE TOTAL EFFECTS OF A PLANNED ACTION WOULD BE. Further, the decision-maker should be concerned with the promotion of the maximum amount of net, not gross, happiness. At the same time, such thoughts as whether the planned action is fair, just, beneficent, and permits autonomy on the part of any other people concerned. At first glance applying this second test seems quite simple compared to the first test of universalizability (or consistency). But affairs are never as simple as they seem at first glance.
Aristotle's test of intentions, Step No. 3, is the third and final step to be applied in the little trivium recommended by Professor Fox. For this advice we turn to the ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, who asked in his Nicomachean Ethics, "WHAT WERE THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE ACT WAS PERFORMED?" Virtue, as defined by Aristotle, "is concerned with emotion and action, and emotions and actions that are voluntary are objects for praise or blame, while those that are involuntary are objects for pardon and sometimes for pity." So, depending on whether we are adjudging whether a person's actions were voluntary or involuntary, we may decide whether a person's questionable action is actually pardonable because it was carried out under compulsion or from ignorance, or whatever.
A very practical example employing these three tests to determine whether a person's action are good or bad, beneficial or evil, might be a situation where a person has committed a crime (e.g., murder). First, considering Test No. 1, we certainly would not wish to see such an act universalized and carried out against all people on earth. Second, using Test No. 2, this particular act (murder) obviously had most serious consequences and did not contribute to the greatest (net) good or happiness of anyone (in fact, the opposite was the case). Thus, employing Test No. 3, if we wish to judge this seemingly heinous crime as good, bad, or neutral, we need to know under what conditions the act was carried out. A law court definitely takes the results of Test No. 3 into consideration when rendering a judgment.
So there it is, admittedly presented in a most elementary fashion in the limited space available here. However, what is being recommended here was seen by Professor Richard Fox (Cleveland State University) as a good starting point in basic decision-making. Try it out the next time you face an individual or social problem where you are confronted in your own life with the need for sound ethical decision-making.
Note: This initial approach is amplified in some detail in Zeigler's A WAY OUT OF ETHICAL CONFUSION (2004) and in great detail in WHO KNOWS WHAT'S RIGHT ANYMORE? (2002). Further information may be found by clicking on the respective book cover at www.earlezeigler.com
A TEST FOR SELF-EVALUATION
YOUR “RQ” (RECREATION QUOTIENT)
Throughout history many societies misused leisure after they have earned it. In some instances the misuse of free time actually caused the downfall of that society.
North Americans have been accused of having spectatoritis—that is, spending too much of their free time watching others taking part in some form of recreation.
Many people are concerned about whether they are getting sufficient pleasure out of life. Here is an opportunity to determine your overall “recreational quotient” based on involvement (or lack of same) in a variety of recreational pursuits.
This simple, self-evaluative test for adults of all ages was developed so that men and women could rate themselves recreationally and then take steps as they wish to improve their “recreational quotient.” There is no doubt but that sound recreational pursuits can add zest and vigor to our lives.
We can appreciate that there are many ways of looking at the area of recreation. However, although we could determine averages (or norms) for a given population as to types of recreational pursuits followed, it doesn’t seem advisable to set standards in a free society.
Of course, one development of modern society has been that people are increasingly crowded together in heavily populated urban and suburban communities. This creates a problem: How can people find happiness, satisfaction, and a high quality of life despite and increased tempo of living and increasing crowded conditions?
In taking this test—i.e., carrying out this self-evaluation—please answer the questions as honestly and frankly as possible. The test is based on a scale moving from passive, to vicarious, to active, to creative involvement in life’s educational and recreational activities. It gives you more credit if you are a most interested onlooker or listener rather than a passive one. Moreover, you will score even higher if you actively take part in a particular recreational activity. The highest rating goes to the person who participates in a superior and/or creative fashion.
Instructions
Give yourself one point if you answer “yes” to question no.1 under sport and physical recreational interests. In like manner give yourself two points for answering question no. 2 affirmatively, three points for question no. 3, and four points for no. 4. The maximum score for each category is ten points.
At the bottom of each section (or category of recreational interest), total your score from each of the four questions in that section. When you have completed all of the questions in the five categories, total the scores from the different categories.
Finally, rate yourself according to the scale for your grand total, and also according to the scale for individual sections. Although in developing this self-evaluation scale, we did give you more points for active involvement, we are not seeking to establish an overall standard for participation.
After you have completed this assessment and determined your recreation quotient (“RQ”), we will offer some suggestions and recommendations for your consideration. (Please begin now on the next page.)
CATEGORY 1
Sports and Physical Activity
(e.g., golf, bowling, exercise class, walking)
1. Do you regularly at least glance through the sports section
of your local newspaper?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
2. Are you a faithful follower of at least one team or athlete,
rejoicing in victory and fretting in defeat?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
3. Do you take part at least two or three times a week through-
out the entire in regular physical activity (e.g., an active
game or sport, brisk walking for a mile)
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
4. Are you considered one of the better players in any active
physical activity or active game or sport among opponents
your own age?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
Total Score for this Section................ Score _____
Scale: 10 pts. —- superior; 6 pts. —- good; 3 pts. —- fair; 1 pt. —- poor
CATEGORY 2
Social Activities
(e.g., social club, church
outing, family recreation)
1. Do you take pleasure in make nodding acquaintances and exchanging
the time of day with a number of people?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
2. Do you take an interest in and attend at least one social club
or organization regularly?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
3. Do you invite friends in for dinner or a social get-together
(or invite someone out) at least once a month?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
4. In the past year have you been elected an officer or served
as a committee chairperson of a club or a social or political
organization?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
Total Score for this Section................ Score _____
Scale: 10 pts. — superior; 6 pts. — good; 3 pts. — fair; 1 pt. — poor
CATEGORY 3
Communicative Activities
(e.g., article writing, letter
to editor, speaking, discussions)
1. Do you telephone or drop in on a friend regularly just to pass
the time of day?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
2. Do you argue for a point of view even though it may mean a
difference of opinion with a close friend or committee
chairperson?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
3. Have you in the past six months written one or more letters
strongly expressing your opinion to an editor, school principal,
or civic official?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
4. In the past year have you given a talk or led discussion at
your PTA, church, or any other local group?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
Total Score for this Section................ Score _____
(See scale under Categories 1 & 2 above)
CATEGORY 4
Aesthetic & Creative Activities (“Cultural”)
(e.g., oil painting, music, sculpting)
1. Do you like to listen to a musical concert or watch a serious
drama on television?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
2. Have you attended at least three or four concerts, play, or
art exhibits in the past year?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
3. Do you paint, sketch, play an instrument, or sing, etc.
regularly?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
4. If your answer to #3 immediately above, do you rate yourself
sufficiently high to enter a a content or competition?
Yes ( ) or No ( )..................... Score _____
Total Score for this Section................ Score _____
(See scale under Categories 1 & 2 above)
CATEGORY 5
Educational Activities
(e.g., hobbies: ham radio, gardening,
astronomy, coin-collecting)
1. Do you like to hear or read about the learning interests of
others?
Yes ( ) or No ( ).................... Score _____
2. Are you so interested and knowledgeable in any educational or
recreational hobby (apart from one you are engaged in yourself)
that you could discuss it intelligently with an expert on the subject?
Yes ( ) or No ( ).................... Score _____
3. Do you have a “learning-interest” hobby of your own in which
you are involved regularly?
Yes ( ) or No ( ).................... Score _____
4. Are you considered an expert on your hobby, one to whom others
may turn for advice, and possibly having won an award or special
mention in the past year or two?
Yes ( ) or No ( ).................... Score _____
Total Score for this Section............... Score _____
(See scale under Categories 1 & 2 above)
NOW ADD UP THE TOTAL FOR EACH CATEGORY TO GET YOUR
GRAND TOTAL—YOUR FINAL SCORE = ______
ANALYSIS
Now rate yourself according to the following scale:
50-35 pts.—Outstanding—You may be getting too much fun and pleasure out of life. How about doing some more constructive work for a change?
34-24 pts.—Above Average—You may have achieved a balance between work and play in your life. You are evidently enjoying your leisure without having a guilty conscience.
23-14 pts.—Average—Your score indicate a fair status. You may be somewhat narrow or one-sided, or you may not have achieved much depth in anything. Check this out keeping the ideal in mind.
13-6 pts.—Below Average—You are missing some of the good things, the pleasurable activities, that life has to offer. Review and assess your goals for living.
5-0 pts.—Poor—Life is undoubtedly a tedious routine for you. Wake up and live!
RECOMMENDATIONS / SUGGESTIONS
This assessment of your personal “recreational quotient,” obviously a subjective evaluation (plus an attempt to be a bit humorous), is based on the premise that you should determine intelligently and carefully what it is that you want out of life. What do you value in your life?
Some might say they want pleasure, knowledge, and prestige, while others might stress creativity, adventure, and good health. A third group might wish for improvement of certain personality traits, a renewal of religious faith, and a continued capacity to profit from a lifelong education.
However you may rank your personal values in descending order, there is solid evidence that choosing a sound educational/recreational pattern in your life is difficult and should be an ever-changing challenge throughout life. The premise upon which this test is based is that the specific decisions you make about which free-time activities you will be involved with—and how you go about carrying them out—can mean a great deal toward the achievement of your life goals.
Some people are lucky enough to have a career in which they can find the satisfactions which coincide with many of their chosen values. But you may not a position where this is possible. This is why it is so important for you to establish your own hierarchy of values and then to select your educational/recreational pattern of living. We wish you well in this quest. . . .
Taken from WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE GOOD LIFE? by E. F. Zeigler. To learn more about this monograph, call up www.earlezeigler.com and click on the appropriate book cover.
Must We Rely on Dubious Public Figures to Teach Us About Family Values?
There certainly have been other times in history that were at least equally troublesome on the subject of human values as the present. This is admittedly not the "best of times" judging by the wide variety of literature about ethics coming from so many sources in society today.
We can't escape the media-flooding on the subject even if we wanted to do so. As a result, we are inundated almost daily with short and long innocuous discussions about right and wrong. As I see it, the subject of values is much too important to be trusted to the likes of people like the often over-stuffed politicians and theologians who grace our television screen.
It is especially annoying that these vote-hungry politicians or money-raising theologians on either side of the border--characters often holding questionable values themselves--try to tell me what values to stress as I live my life. And it makes matters even worse when you appreciate that they are only using the topic as a smokescreen to cover up their own failings and inadequacies, not to mention the gross deficiencies of the social development in North America.
Study about values certainly belongs in philosophy courses (even more that it's getting, I think), as well as in courses in sociology. I believe also that discussions about values belong in courses at all levels of our educational system--be they in the public or separate institutions. What is vital, of course, is that the students understand what position the instructor "is coming from," and also that all sides of a controversial issue are presented.
We can ask ourselves: How did we get into such a mess that politicians with dubious statesmanlike values themselves think they know something about the subject of values, morality, and ethics? A good question, but one can hardly blame the public generally for being confused when a problem of an ethical nature involving values arises in daily relationships as we approach the 21st century.
Without delving deeply into the history of ethics, let's try to put this topic in reasonable perspective. Professor S.H. Miller, in the Harvard Business Review, speaks to the prevailing confusion on the subject as he refers to "The Tangle of Ethics." "Instead of having an impossible ideal confronting a practical necessity," he states, "we have such a diverse inheritance of ethical ways that no matter which one we choose, the others are, at least to some degree betrayed."
By this Miller means that the complex of moral systems that we have inherited in this ever-increasing multicultural environment is very often contradictory. For better or worse, it includes the Hebraic culture, the Christian system, Medieval penance, Renaissance freedom, the Industrial Revolution's technical application of science to production and distribution, subsequent post-industrial, "Third Wave" society on this continent with its changing values and norms, and a continuing scientific approach employing empirical techniques.
My own reading and experience tell me that this "betrayal" to which Miller refers above, and the confused state with which I characterized the prevailing situation within society, has been steadily carried over into all aspects of life. As Frances Taliaferro has pointed out, "The tragedy of American (U.S.!) civilization is that it has swept away WASP morality and put nothing in its place" (I believe this applies to Canada too.)
If it has happened that the "honorable certainties" of our changing society have turned "quirky and countercultural" as Auchinloss would have us believe, and "conventional morality has not vanished but has gone underground," I think it's high time that we examine these "underground" values and restore them to some recognizable state of within present-day morality.
Certainly changes are occurring from a monistic morality (one fundamentally theistic) to a pluralistic one in the realm of human values. But these changes are not as crucial as some would have us believe. There is still common ground based on standards and principles. North American society is not disintegrating! The longstanding goods and evils have not been altered. They can't be, because they are based on unchangeable facts of human nature related to (1) physiological capacities and needs and (2) psychological capacities and similarities.
Thus, as philosopher John Kekes has explained, there are still many good things left in this pluralistic morality such as freedom, knowledge, happiness, justice, love, order, wisdom, etc. The point is that none is reducible to the other, and each individual should strive to achieve some acceptable combination of these in his or her life.
It is actually the evolving "forms" or "norms" of this pluralistic morality that are causing concern. The values of self-direction, intimacy, and decency, for example, are still present and will remain so. For example, no one disagrees about life being good; the disagreement is about whether abortion, suicide (aided or otherwise), euthanasia, and capital punishment are acceptable norms or justifiable violations of this still commonly acceptable good.
Further, the disagreement is not about whether sexual intimacy is good; the problem arises about whether heterosexual, bi-sexual, and/or homosexual promiscuity are acceptable forms of such behavior and, if so, under what conditions.
That such complex human problems at the individual, social, societal, and cultural levels are going to increase in the years ahead appears to be self evident. Even though the weapons stalemate between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. has been resolved by the break-up of the latter empire, we are still confronted with a multitude of smaller "hot and cold" wars all over the earth. The vital importance of devising helpful non-military determinants for conflict resolution is looming ever larger (e.g., the Israelis and the Palestinians).
To complicate matters further, as Robert Heilbroner maintained in his farsighted predictions made in the 1960s, citizens of the United States have had a blind philosophy of optimism about history's malleability and compatibility in keeping with their ideals. This optimism has been prolonged by such politicians as presidents Nixon, Reagan, Bush, Clinton, and George “the W”.
The military might has been there, but there is very little recognition of the vast ecological crisis developing (despite the efforts of former U.S. vice-president Al Gore). Further, economic collectivism is becoming increasingly necessary with an accompanying drift away from a more primitive, pure form of economic capitalism.
Add to this the steady increase in the size of the welfare state, the exploding world population, the spiralling cost of the military bureaucracy as we witness the increase to well over 200 countries in the world, not to mention the vast societal transformation occurring because of the impact of science and technology.
Is it any wonder why there is general confusion, and why the subject of personal and professional values, norms, and ethics is now arising daily in so many quarters? It is for these reasons that we should all begin to think much more carefully about just which values are important to us personally. It is possible, of course, that we have multiplied our conflicts beyond necessity by questioning tradition more than is warranted. We really do need an improved historical perspective.
This is where I believe also that the subject of applied ethics can and should be employed at all educational levels. Of course, we may never know precisely if courses in applied ethics will result in people behaving more ethically, but I believe strongly that such experiences represent an experiment well worth trying. It is undoubtedly in times like this that we should be "forcing" people to think carefully and rigorously about all kinds of values (be they family values, social values, economic values, artistic values, or whatever).
The challenge to us all is to learn how to balance universal "goods" (as opposed to "bads" or evils). In the process we must turn to our moral tradition. Here exists a bountiful historical repository of past experiments of both admirable and deplorable efforts at balancing human goods and bads. We need to employ wisdom as we compare to uncover whether past experiences can help to ameliorate our contemporary conflicts.
The only justification for departing from an old form or norm is whether the recommended new approach is more beneficial or less harmful than the old one. Does the change foster improvement in the conditions for personal and social self-direction, intimacy, and decency?
Finally, I return to the theme that politicians (as opposed to statespersons) represent to me highly suspect teachers of family values, or any other similar goods (as opposed to bads). If we are regularly concerned with decency, intimacy, and self-direction within our own families, and if we encourage the introduction of courses in applied ethics, we won't have to rely on politicians, athletes, comedians, and pious theologians to enlighten us about our family values and civic responsibilities. Amen .
This selection was taken from THROUGH THE EYES OF A CONCERNED LIBERAL by Earle F. Zeigler. For more information call up www.earlezeigler.com and click on the appropriate book cover,
BUILDING A PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY
Building a personal philosophy can be adventurous and extremely exciting. It can also be very rewarding despite the fact that it will be time-consuming and will require some painstaking effort now and in the future. Much care has been taken in the preceding pages to avoid bias and prejudice in presenting the various aspects of the major philosophical tendencies to you. At this point some might feel that the author should use, or at least is entitled to use, a few pages to tell you what he really believes. It is possible that you may feel you know already.
It would be relatively simple for me to build a strong case for a particular approach at this time. You might even forgive me for doing it. I well remember a retired philosophy of education professor who was engaged to teach a course as a "distinguished visiting professor" at Michigan. He knew that he wouldn't be around too much longer, and he just knew his particular philosophic stance was right. So he used his own text explaining his own approach and required no other contradictory readings whatsoever. I don't believe he was being fair to his students--unless he made crystal-clear exactly what he was doing. If he were to do that, the ethical thing for him to do was to permit his students to register for a different course if they decided to make such a move. Whatever, the really important issue right now, however, is for you to continue the development of your philosophy based upon your own experience and reflection.
May I suggest, also, that you consider Theodore Greene's warning given more than four decades ago:
No philosopher worthy of the name is a pure exemplification of any school or type, the wholly appropriate recipient of any handy philosophical label. He may prefer, and merit, some one label in reference to any other presently available, but if he actually functions as a philosopher he is devoting his life to the development and articulation of his own more or less distinctive beliefs, even if these fall primarily, or even wholly, within the confines of a historical school or tradition (1955, p. 91).
Five Possible Stages of Development
Ostrich Stage. You may find that you have been in the ostrich stage up to now. You may have buried your head in the sand (as this bird is reported to do periodically) and refused to allow yourself to become aware of the conflicting philosophies that exist in the world, in your culture, or within your specialized field of physical education and sport.
Cafeteria Stage. Or perhaps you may have climbed the ladder (in this instance a five-rung stepladder) a bit further and are at the cafeteria stage. This involves selecting some of this and some of that which looks appetizing for your philosophical fare. This eclectic approach has a great deal of appeal initially, but there appears to be strong evidence that it is generally regarded as philosophically indefensible. It may, of course, merely be one stage in an individual's development, but it is to be hoped that the devoted professional will soon make his or her way higher.
In assessing eclecticism, Wegener saw it as "a mosaic of diverse conceptions rather than a genuine integration of thought." He called it a "mixture" which he hoped would become a compound (1957, p. 31). As I see it, there is every reason to believe that a person will be attracted by certain elements of the various approaches. The fear I have is that a person may lift something out of context and insert it somewhere else where it simply does not belong. Thus I see this second stage simply as a resting place along the way up the ladder. If a person does not proceed higher into more rarefied air, I think he or she risks not achieving one's professional potential in the final analysis. (This goes back to my longstanding argument that a fine professional person should become a "missionary" for the promotion of the profession.)
Fence-Sitter Stage. The third rung of the ladder is a popular place. This rung has to be a strong one to hold all the people who have gotten this far and no further. I have designated this as the fence-sitter stage or level. Here we find people who have matured a bit more and have found, perhaps unconsciously to a degree, that they are inclining in one philosophic direction or another (e.g, to the left rather than the right; perhaps toward an existential-phenomenological orientation as opposed to a group-oriented position). But beyond that they are unwilling to go. Why? Maybe they're too lazy intellectually, if such a distinction may be made. Perhaps they're vaguely afraid of the consequences of a determined stand. We are told that all too many people are still inclined to be "organization" men or women who don't wish to rock the boat for fear of the possible consequences. Then again, there are often other reasons not disclosed. The late Princeton philosopher, Kaufmann (1973, Chap. 1), coined the term decidophobia for a person's fear of autonomy and/or decision-making.
Stage of Early Maturity. In time I fervently hope that you will at least rise to the fourth rung on this proposed philosophical ladder. This I call the stage of early maturity. At this point the individual professional has wrestled with herself or himself and the immediate social environment. This person has achieved a quality of unity or harmony that is characteristic of a philosophical position or stance that is reasonably logical or consistent in its various departments. She, if this is the case, is able to justify her convictions (which may earlier have been only tentative persuasions) intellectually to the extent that scientific knowledge, and perhaps faith, can assist her. As a result she has developed strong attitudes that are reflected in the moral ardor of her personal and professional life. It is probably not necessary to say that there is plenty of room on this rung of the ladder. Beware of the strong possibility of intolerance and fanaticism at this point!
Stage of Philosophical Maturity. As you mature still further, I hope that you will gradually achieve wisdom as well as mere knowledge. If you do, you may arrive at the stage of philosophical maturity. This level of personal and professional development can come from a broad and sound experience, diligent study, and ordered reflection. It is at this point that we as individuals realize the supreme importance and need for a certain amount of agreement or consensus on a nation-wide, indeed on a worldwide, basis.
Our world has reached a stage where the need for "peaceful strife" is infinitely greater than the types of struggles that have taken place in the past, and which are continuing in the present with seemingly little hope of resolution. At this level on the ladder, we most certainly realize the unique aspects of our own considered position and the importance of a continuing search for truth, however it may be best defined. And yet we should be tolerant of others and their beliefs, realizing that a most sincere effort should be made to increase the boundaries of any level of consensus that has been achieved. After all, it is quite possible, and seemingly quite probable, that only one position is truly right in the final analysis.
Conclusion
No matter which stage of philosophical development you may be at presently, you may find it necessary to retrace the various steps that have been recommended to assist you to build a personal philosophy that is logical, consistent, and systematic. Obviously, there is no hard and fast progression to which you must adhere. The steps that have been suggested should at least serve as a point of departure. It is with this in mind that I have included here an appendix that should help you understand a bit better where you stand right now.
Keep in mind that the philosophic quest is a never-ending one! You won't suddenly, at some later stage of your development, find all the answers to the problems and issues that confront you right now. But you will be leading a greatly enriched life that may truly be an "adventure of ideas," as Whitehead has so aptly expressed it.
Each of you should earn the right to be an influential person in your chosen field or research specialty relating to the profession--at least within your own sphere of operation, and hopefully much further. The field of developmental physical activity in sport, exercise, and related expressive activities has a truly unique contribution to make in the lives of all people everywhere whatever their age or condition may be. Whatever your philosophical position may be, understand it as fully as possible. If you do, it may enable you to live up to the highest standards of your profession. Ours can become a proud profession, if each of us strives to help people realize all the values that life has to offer.
This material was taken from Chapter 14 of Socio-Cultural Foundations of Physical Education and Education by Earle F. Zeigler. It was published by Meyer and Meyer, Aachen, Germany in 2003. For more information go to www.earlezeigler.com, and then click on Meyer & Meyer on the bottom of the home page.
A COMPREHENSIVE LISTING OF
DESIRABLE MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES OR SKILLS
What then, specifically, are these "desirable management competencies or skills" that are needed by the aspiring sport and physical education manager? Through a careful analysis of the literature and responses from knowledgeable colleagues, we are now prepared to offer a lengthy, but probably incomplete listing of competencies and skills subdivided into the five areas or category of skills that we have determined. (The competencies or skills are categorized below in relation to understandings developed, skills acquired, assessments carried out, plans devised, experiments undertaken, evaluations made, instruments employed, etc. whereby the development of such competency or skill may be effected to some degree.) The five general areas of competency or skill are (1) personal skills, (2) interpersonal skills, (3) conceptual skills, (4) technical skills, and (5) conjoined skills.
Note: The laboratory exercises recommended (and included)
for each category (e.g., personal competencies) in Parts 2
through 6 in this manual are the lettered ones at the
beginning of each section immediately below. The other
competencies or skills listed are highly desirable for full
competency development, but detailed exercise experiences
are not provided in this present text.
I. The Manager's Personal Competencies/Skills
A. determine one's personal philosophy of
life and/or religion
B. establish priorities in personal values
clarification
C. develop a personal mission statement
D. devise a plan that tentatively maps out
one's future (i.e., goal-setting in
relation to stages of maturity)
E. conduct a personal analysis to assist in the
development of an individual time-management
plan (i.e., planning a work schedule for
the day, week, month, year. etc.)
Additional Personal Competencies/Skills:
- learning self-management
- practicing positive thinking
- learning a second language
- employing the requisite amount of
assertiveness
- improving one's perception
- strengthening one's motivation
- acquiring ability at self-analysis
- avoiding stress through biofeedback
- improving one's reading skills
- evaluating personal communication
skills (e.g., writing and speaking)
- determining one's overall physical fitness
and a "recreational quotient" based on
self-assessment
- learning to think critically (based on
informal logic)
- evaluating one's position on a socio-
political spectrum (i.e., assessment of
opinions about controversial social issues)
- employing a cognitive style instrument to
determine how one thinks about information
received
- learning about useful techniques for the
elimination of encounters and situational
stressors
- self-assessing one's daily work habits
by completion of a checklist
- learning a systems analysis approach to
optimal health achievement through human
ecological interaction
- completing a personal fitness inventory
(including initial assessment of strength,
flexibility, and endurance)
- passing a basic computer "literacy" test
- completing a scale designed to assess one's
creativity and innovation abilities
- testing one's understanding of the meaning of
statistical terms used in everyday life
- determining one's "attitude adjustment
quotient"
II. The Manager's Interpersonal Competencies/Skills
F. develop an understanding of self
(i.e., self-concept) as required for
successful interpersonal competency
G. assess interpersonal communication
skills (e.g., empathetic listening and
responding)
H. execute an interpersonal style inventory
I. evaluate interpersonal management skills
(e.g., selling ideas)
J. learn about one's leadership attributes and
effectiveness; assessing present leadership style
Additional Interpersonal Competencies/Skills:
- assessing one's basic management skills
- carrying out a simulated job interview
(e.g., a "structured " interview)
- completing a debating experience on a
controversial issue
- completing a team development scale
- learning how to negotiate
- developing a leadership style based on a
sound management theory
- role-playing a situation involving the
counseling of staff members (including working
with a disturbed colleague)
- discharging a staff member
- disciplining a staff member
- learning to combat staff mobility
- detecting the managerial or employee "hustler"
- understanding how to relate to minority
personnel
- handling conflicts (i.e., conflict
resolution)
- assessing the organizational climate of an
organization
- taking part in a leaderless group discussion
(including performance assessment)
- chairing a case method discussion as an
example of an approach to managerial
decision-making
- serving as chairperson of a discussion
group to consider qualities that should be
required for admission to a sport management
training program
- knowing about successful strategies employed
to gain organizational power and then being
able to convert it to influence
- developing a supporting rationale for a
proposal to implement an affirmative action
program for the hiring of either women, ethnic
minorities, or handicapped persons
III. The Manager's Conceptual Competencies/Skills
K. understand the development of twentieth century
management thought and theory
L. analyze the general (external) and immediate
(internal) environments
M. plan in the management process (levels and tools)
N. organize in the management process (guidelines
and types of organizational structures)
O. staff in the management process (human resources
management)
P. direct in the management process
(leadership theory and techniques)
Q. control in the management process (including
setting standards, developing an annual budget,
and performance evaluation)
R. relate Mackenzie's Management Process Model
to a systems approach for sport and physical
education management
- executing an assignment designed to improve
conceptual blockbusting
- understanding of a mathematical model that
explains management process in sport and
physical education
- demonstrating an awareness of the historical
development of management thought, theory, and
practice in sport management
- understanding the variety of organizational
concepts
- creating a statement of aims and objectives
for a sport organization
- determining one's own management philosophy
(presumably derived from one's personal life
philosophy determined in Category I above)
- understanding of selected current management
theories and their implications for practice
- explaining (including diagramming of) a systems
approach to theory & research in sport
management
- based on data presented about a sport
management problem presented, executing a
simulated exercise designed to produce a
solution to the situation
- writing a case for subsequent consideration of
those concerned with a sport management problem
- based on careful observation, preparing a
model delineating an organization's structure
- developing a mission statement delineating
long range aims and specific objectives of an
organization with which one has had experience
- formulating one's approach to professional
ethics
- explaining the steps one must follow to
implement a management by objectives approach
(MBO) in an organization
- understanding how to establish work priorities
- distinguishing between managing and doing
- analyzing information that comes to one's
attention
IV. Developing the Manager's Technical
Competencies/Skills
S. learn how to use the meeting as an effective
tool for the work group
T. learn about team-building (i.e., developing
an understanding of how work groups are formed
and maintained)
U. execute an "in-basket analysis" as the manager
approaches a day on the job (including a request
for an assessment of how computer information
technologies & networking might be employed)
V. understand legal liability in relation to
sport management
- acquiring minimum computer skills (i.e.,
word processing, spread sheet, data storage)
- learning everyday office techniques (e.g.,
telephone usage, dictation, interviewing)
- using a computer as an aid to decision-
making
- developing a plan for facility and equipment
maintenance
- learning how to apply for various types of
grants
- acquiring an elementary understanding of
accounting
- learning how to order supplies and equipment
competitively
- knowing what is involved in the preparation of,
and "checking out" of, a personal resume
- discussing the topic of computer technology
and networking knowledgeably
- determining cost-benefit analysis
that compares present condition to two
competing alternatives (using a spreadsheet)
- developing a year-end balance sheet for an
organization
- developing an outline for a manual on
facilities management
- understanding of the concept of "the automated
office" (including networking)
- explaining research methodology available to
sport managers (including so-called action
research) and the research techniques available
to each type of research
- developing an understanding of public relations
and learning how to prepare media releases
- preparing an instrument designed to assess an
organization's marketing status
- executing a fact-finding investigation to
assist with the solving of a specific problem
or issue
- carrying out of an action research project
(e.g., in-house survey)
- developing a format for the implementation
of the following categories of operations
research models: (a) comparison and/or
classification (e.g., statistical sampling),
(b) operational process (e.g., linear
programming), (c) future prediction (e.g.,
break-even & profitability)
- employing an administrator evaluation
instrument in a specific organizational
situation
- analyzing an applicant's resume, including
ways to determine its accuracy and the
applicant's true abilities
- using an evaluative grid, completing a
structured interview to employ a sport manager
- demonstrating competency in chairing a
meeting
- after observing a meeting, appraising its
effectiveness and efficiency
- mapping a program for fund-raising
within the internal environment of an
organization
- writing the following documents effectively:
an inter-office memorandum, a letter, and an
agenda for a meeting
- learning how to develop a successful sport
sponsorship
- developing a plan to obtain a sport
sponsorship
- keeping the necessary criteria in mind,
developing a plan for the organization and
management of a sport tournament
- organizing and developing one's own
resume for possible use in obtaining a
position in sport management
- learning how to implement a management
information system (MIS)
V. The Manager's Conjoined Competencies/Skills
W. develop an outline of a policies and
procedures manual for a special event (e.g.,
a sports tournament)
X. develop an approach to decision-making
in relation to one's personal and professional
philosophy (including ethical decision-making
where applicable)
Y. carry out a strategic market-planning
assessment for a sport- and/or physical
activity-based program
Z. understand how to manage for change
- creating an organizational climate within
which people can accept advice from others
- planning for the implementation of an on-
the-job training program
- learning how to use the informal organization
in the achievement of organizational goals
- using a problem-solving approach with a small
group, development of a change process model
- using a quantitative technique based on an
applied mathematical model, determining the
solution to a sport and physical education
problem (operations research)
- developing an organization's "future
orientation" (e,g, by developing a format
for a standing committee on the topic)
- developing an organizational approach to
ethical decision-making
- assessing the ecological implications of a
physical recreation program
- constructing a mechanism to assess the
cost-effectiveness of competitive sports at
an educational institution
- after selecting a sport management problem for
consideration, roleplaying by a management team
(selected from the group) of a human relations
situation while working toward a solution of
the issue
- understanding how to manage a complex project
(e.g., Critical Path Method
- allocating designated resources through
case analysis of a specific administrative
situation employing such factors as human
capital, scarcity, effectiveness, efficiency,
optimization, competition, and monopoly
- based on actual case situation, determining
what actions to take (and what not to take)
in regard to a situation where the question of
legal liability arises
- developing a crisis management plan and
adapting it to a specific situation (e.g.,
budgetary shortfall in the middle of a fiscal
year)
This material was taken from the introduction of Management Competency Development in Sport and Physical Education by Earle Zeigler & Gary Bowie. It was published by Stipes Publishing Company, Champaign, IL, USA. For more information, please go to www.earlezeigler.com and on the bottom of the home page click in Stipes.
A SOCIAL RELEVANCE PERSPECTIVE FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND KINESIOLOGY
Earle F. Zeigler
Laura J. Huelster (dec.)
The world has become so threatening that all professions should now work assiduously to make a contribution toward the goal of world peace. Keeping in mind that bonafide professions have historically developed codes of ethics which included an obligation to work for both the public good and that of the profession, this clearly means that the sport and physical education profession has an obligation to foster and maintain societal values.
The late Laura J. Huelster (1982, p. 1) pointed out that,
. . . the survival of our society is threatened unless there is fitness to live the quality of life that deemphasizes war and promotes peaceful solutions to national and international social, economic, and political conflicts. . . .
She argued further that general education should include knowledge about the conditions of human societies that are conducive to minimizing wars and maximizing peace. Huelster stressed additionally that a willingness to accept and act upon that knowledge depends not only upon convincing evidence, but also upon having attitudes and ideologies that are compatible with it.
What should be included in general education should undoubtedly be reflected in professional education as well. This is apparent because the highly threatening world situation makes us aware of the urgent need for a practical response so that future generations will possess both the knowledge and the accompanying attitudes to bring about a peaceful, productive state in the world.
HOW CAN WE HELP WITH THE PROMOTION OF A TREND?
How can we as one profession, therefore, a professional field known now as sport and physical education in the United States (and as physical and health education in Canada), proceed to join in with any trend leading to such a future state? This question becomes poignantly vital when we appreciate that the need for such a condition of worldwide "social-self-realization" (Brameld, 1956, p. 272) is evidently not yet fully appreciated by a majority of the world population. When Naisbitt (1982) in his fascinating Megatrends explained that he and his Group have determined through research that 10 "new directions are transforming the lives" of people in the United States, the urgency of a vigorous quest for peace was seemingly not evident. The research technique employed by Naisbitt was that of monitoring selected publications carefully throughout the world to determine future trends. For example, this research pointed out that the United States was moving rapidly from an industrial society to an information society (pp. 11-38). Interestingly, however, as he postulated future trends for living, there is no mention made of a trend toward the pursuit of world peace so that this wonderful dream of an even better future can indeed be realized! Even in Megatrends 2000 (1990), Naisbitt and Aburdene haven't found sufficient evidence of a strong quest for peace on the part of humankind. They do state, however that,
The 1990's presented a new world view. The cold war ended in the last years of the 1980's, and the arms race has been slowed, perhaps even halted. The postwar period of nationalism and ideological cold war is over, and a new era of globalization had begun. . . . (p. 14).
These were optimistic sentiments, of course, but keep in mind that this book appeared before the almost unbelievable developments in eastern Europe with the USSR, the Gulf War crisis caused by Iraq's harsh conquest of Kuwait, and Yugoslavia's "ethnic cleansing" period.
We must understand, of course, that the sport and physical education profession would assuredly not be alone if it were to move forthrightly in this direction both within the educational system and in the larger society where public and private programs of sport, exercise, and physical recreation are sponsored. For example, there exists already a group called "Concerned Philosophers for Peace" within the American Philosophical Association that in April, 1988 sponsored a joint meeting with another group named International Philosophers for the Prevention of Nuclear Omnicide in Cincinnati, Ohio. In a paper made available earlier (1983), Allen explained the situation as "Either/Or: How Should Philosophers Respond to the Threat of Nuclear War and the Arms Race?" He was quite correct with his question to his colleagues, and we in the sport and physical education profession also face an either/or situation. Either we accept the challenge to respond to this unique, potentially devastating world situation, or we continue as usual with our programs of promoting physical fitness and presumably positive aggression in highly competitive sport (which somehow often emerges as negative aggression).
INTERRELATED ASSUMPTIONS FORMING THE THEORY
Based on the assumptions, therefore, (1) that unrestrained aggression in the world and potential nuclear devastation is forcing us to reconstruct our social environment, (2) that rational plans for peaceful resolution of conflicts are available that can move nations from ongoing wars to peaceful resolution of disputes, (3) that societies have before and can presently change their values, institutions and systems, and (4) that a will for peace will depend on the people's desire for it because of the attitudes, ideologies, and behaviors inculcated as they mature, Huelster (1982, p. 2) has provided us with a logical, sequential rationale that, if adopted, could lead or guide the profession toward a considerable
re-orientation of its recommended program. By this we mean that the knowledge, competencies, and skills promoted in developmental physical activity in sport, exercise, and related expressive activities could well be re-arranged to offer quite different input, thruput, and output resulting in a markedly different product at the delivery stage.
In regard to Assumption No.2 immediately above--that rational plans for peaceful resolution of conflicts are available--one example was recommended in the Special Session on Disarmament held by the United Nations in the late 1970s. Representatives of 149 nations adopted a set of principles for international disarmament strategy. There were recommendations for balanced and gradual reductions of armaments with the recommendation that the money saved be directed to the establishment of an international peace force and for the promotion of the well-being of people everywhere. In retrospect, we ask, "Why did this plan fail?" The answer is that leaders from the now-divided USSR and the USA were elsewhere at that very moment agreeing to a three percent increase in armaments! Today we can breathe a slight sigh of relief because these two superpowers are indeed involved in negotiations leading to massive disarmament. Of course, a cynic would argue that the underlying reason for such moves is more economic than ideological.
We appreciate that significant social changes do not come about overnight (Assumption No.3 immediately above). For example, for thousands of years, slavery had been an accepted social practice
throughout the world. When ancient Athens was in its so-called Golden Age, the population of the city was about 300,000--260,000 slaves and 40,000 freemen! And it was only a little more than 100 years ago that the U.S.A. had its Civil War, and even today racial prejudice still prevails in many quarters. Look further at the improving, but still terrible, situation in South Africa right now. However, overall changes have been made, and we must continue to work for a more wholesome world culture in all regards--although we do understand that progress has never been a straight-line affair.
Assumption No.4 above is a truly difficult one to realize--the assumption that a will for peace will depend on the people's desire for it because of the attitudes, ideologies, and behaviors inculcated as they mature. In his investigations on this subject, Eckhardt (1972) measured personality traits and social attitudes with the finding that dominant factors were compassion (loving, merciful drives) and compulsion (cruel, merciless drives). Love appears to be the fundamental ingredient of compassion, whereas hate is the feeling basic to compulsion. Building on Eckhardt's research, Alcock (1976) discovered that most of his subjects highly desired happiness and a world at peace, and further that honesty and courage would be needed to attain these goals. Huelster (1982, p. 10) summarized what this all adds up to as follows:
Those among us who want to promote peace apparently need to confront and correct imbalances and inconsistencies in our compassionate attitudes and behaviors. We would need to
promote conditions to minimize war by the nonviolent means of knowing the conditions for peace, and taking stands on them through petitions, demonstrations, and supporting legislation on disarmament and economic and political justice. We would also need to commit ourselves to the related problems of reducing populations, improving the welfare of the poor and the oppressed, and improving our ecology. Increased people-power is needed to pressure political leaders to take national and foreign actions in support of enduring peace.
This is obviously going to be extremely difficult to bring to pass in the United States and Canada at this time, not to mention in other sections of the world. Further, we in the profession of sport and physical education--especially the men--are going to "swallow mighty hard" before we put ourselves on the line for a futuristic, noncombative orientation such as this statement implies is necessary. Yet, does this evident fact mean that we shouldn't try to bring about change?
GENERAL EDUCATION FOR PEACE
One would think that a fifth assumption (No.5), the idea of "general education for peace," would be relatively simple to introduce into the educational system. However, such will probably not be the case. There has been a tradition of keeping organized religion out of public institutions, and this separation of church and state is undoubtedly a good thing. However, the end result has been unfortunate from one standpoint: we have resultantly and concurrently kept discussions of ethics and moral values out of the schools and universities as well. We worship the god of value-free science that provides knowledge in the form of scientific facts that presumably adds up to improved living and a higher level of technology. But, we might ask, what good is all of this value-free knowledge going to do us if we end up with a desolate planet characterized overwhelmingly by radiation and nuclear fall-out? Thus, it would appear that we need both, what we call value-free knowledge and also what might be called value-prone knowledge. The former will give us the knowledge upon which we can call prior to the making of value-oriented decisions--decisions that some day may provide a high quality of life for all people everywhere!
What this adds up to is that a steady, strong theme will have to be injected into our entire general education program right up through the second year of university at least. This will be difficult to bring about right now when the hue and cry is for higher test scores, ratings that designate achievement levels in language, reasoning, conceptual, and mathematical skills. Also, there is no doubt but that the concept of "general education" is in the doldrums because of the overriding demand for professional knowledge, competencies, and skills to be used in a high-paying position. As I see it, advocates of liberal arts and science curricula would be well advised to stress, and then measure the attainment of, the general and specific life competencies that their general education programs produce.
EXPERIENCES BASIC TO PEACE IN THE SPORT
AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM
A sixth assumption (No.6) should be consideration of our role both (1) within our general education program and (2) within our professional preparation efforts for people who will subsequently "profess" developmental physical activity in sport, exercise, and related expressive activities for all people of all ages and conditions both within schools and universities and in the society at large. Providing experiences basic to peace in the sport and physical activity program--here is really where the "going will really get rough." (Once again, we believe that this will be more difficult with the men than with the women in our field.) How indeed are we going to promote personal and social traits leading more in the direction of compassion and considerably less in the direction of compulsion as explained by Eckhardt and Alcock above? This will be especially difficult in highly competitive sport for men, and now will also be quite difficult for women too. It may be a bit easier in Canada than in the United States--with the exception of Canada's national sport, ice hockey. In that instance the name of the game has been INTIMIDATION and VIOLENCE (with all letters capitalized)! To make matters worse, it is so obvious that even a recent beer advertisement (Karlsberg) jokes about the fact that we have exported this violent North American style of play to the rest of the world!
Our problem appears to be that we--undoubtedly strongly influenced by social forces, of course--have let so much of this get out of hand. Highly competitive sport, as now practiced at all levels
in North America, amateur, semiprofessional, and professional, has increasingly become our momentary substitute activity as we seemingly move ahead to eventual warfare on a grand scale. We are presently functioning in competitive sport with an operational philosophy that daily promotes and rewards the following type of statements, questions, and actions: "get him before he gets you"; "the watchword is intimidation"; "call on the good foul when you need it to win"; "isn't it thrilling to watch the 'black gladiators' in the basketball arena and on the gridiron?"; "the hell with the spirit of the rules"; "drugs and doping are necessary to achieve superior performance and win; "it is okay to cheat so long as you are not caught"; "winning may not be the only thing, but it beats the hell out of whatever comes next"; and so on ad infinitum.
As a former athlete and coach of three sports, the author wants to win just as much as the next fellow, and perhaps a bit more. He doesn't like "good losers" in sport or in the rest of life--that is, people who give every evidence of not much caring about the struggle or the quest for "the good life," one way or the other. However, even this professional is finding himself increasingly turned off by what occurs so often in competitive sport. Yet one can become extremely happy, almost ecstatic, because there is a Wayne Gretzky in professional hockey and an Isiah Thomas in professional basketball, for example. As Metheny (1965, pp. 41-42) sought to explain, what we should be promoting above all is the concept of "the good strife" rather than the "bad strife" examples we see around us every day.
Paradoxically, the word "competition" literally means to strive with rather than against according to the established letter and spirit of the rules. Even the word "contest" has a similar implication. It means to testify with another rather than against him or her. We need to arrange our competitions so that both the winners and the losers in a "good strife" gain from the experience. They have tested "themselves within the rules by doing their best against opponents who also did their best" (Huelster, 1982, p. 17). Competition characterized by "good strife" remains the ideal for which we should be striving.
And so we can still argue idealistically that highly competitive intercollegiate and interscholastic athletics can be justified inside the realm of sport and physical education if--and this is a very big IF!--positive educational goals characterize the good strife. The late Laura Huelster reluctantly disagreed with this position (1982, p. 17). She agreed that it might still be possible in Canadian inter-university sport, but that it is much less so in the United States--and particularly so in the top 100-150 universities who rely so heavily on gate receipts to maintain their enterprises. As she stated:
Pressures from alumni and university communities to have winning teams is at the point at which success in recruitment of superathletes determines the amount of financial support in grants-in-aid funds, and there is little freedom for recruited athletes to make curricular
choices. It is increasingly being realized by universities that their athletic systems have little to do with their educational systems.
She even recalled an earlier statement (p. 17) where Zeigler had argued that, "in the classification of athletics in the continuum of players, from amateurs to semiprofessionals to professional athletic workers, it is undoubtedly true that intercollegiate athletes in football and basketball in the U.S.A. can be classified as semiprofessionals" (1979, p. 204). Thus, we are forced to ask rhetorically, "What should we do?" What must we do in light of the world situation?" "What can we do in the final analysis?"
THE POSSIBLE FUTURE SITUATION
What can we do "in the final analysis?" A relatively few professionals are moving in Dr. Huelster's direction on this point, but are not yet ready to concur with her that, "except for the basic sport skills in SPE programs, highly competitive athletics should be outside the realm of SPE . . ." (p. 17). Perhaps it is inevitable that it will end up that way in our educational system, but there are many who still feel that we should and must work for "the good strife" in competitive sport at all levels from children's competitions to the Olympic Games and even professional sport (is there a still difference here between the last two named?). However, time is running out on the United States, and Canada seems to be "inclining" similarly because the trend toward compulsive attitudes and behaviors is outstripping any efforts in the direction of promoting what Eckhardt and Alcock called compassionate attitudes and behaviors in the world social structure--and this appears to be especially true in highly competitive sport.
As members of the established profession (NASPE) in the United States--the situation is significantly better in Canada--we should not continue to "run away" from highly competitive sport. When the issue was raised at an international meeting recently, the writer was told, "We don't have any problem with intercollegiate sport on our campus; they're over there!" The immediate reaction should be to ask, "What are we doing over there? Isn't sport is an integral part of the "life blood" of our field?." However, this splintering is what has happened on what may be called the "worst" campuses. The sport and physical education unit, now employing a variety of presumably academically sounding titles (e.g., kinesiology, human kinetics, sport and exercise science), has completely disassociated itself from competitive sport--and that's the way they both like it, but for different reasons.
One approach that an honorable, courageous profession could employ to reverse the prevailing situation, including the trend toward separate educational units and facilities, is to meet the matter directly by "declaring itself in" on the struggle to improve the quality of experience that is taking place in all parts of the program that we are offering in developmental physical activity. We should state boldly--when and where such a condition exists--that highly competitive sport has become so excessive and corrupt that it is actually perverting society. We should be joining forces with others on campus and in the community who want competitive sport to help us achieve true educational goals--not pervert them and society in the bargain. When the time has arrived that intercollegiate sport can topple university presidents and governors, we know that the time has come for the people to speak--if it isn't already too late.
And now, to move this argument up a notch to the level of Olympic sport, the appointment by Olympic officials of George Steinbrenner of the New York Yankees, for example, to straighten out some of their troublesome problems relative to drug issues and human relations is evidence of the lack of solid, constructive leadership at the upper levels of this phase of competitive sport in the United States. Steinbrenner unfortunately has set a continuing example of how not to administer sport--avowed professional or otherwise--and how not to deal with athletes and coaches at any level! (See "Playboy Interview: George Steinbrenner," (May 1991) Playboy, 38, 5:63-80, 171 for an enlightening discussion of Mr. Steinbrenner's philosophy of life and sport.)
We all understand that the compulsive-competitive elements in sport and physical education have steadily assumed a more primary role in the program, whereas it is the compassionate-cooperative qualities that need development if we hope to have an influence and perhaps bring about a change in people's attitudes and behavior leading to less social strife at home and enduring peace on an international level. Unfortunately, however, this would typically be a new social approach for our profession. There has been an effort by some to adapt older games so that they become newer, more cooperative contests with no losers and games where collective scores are kept (Orlick, 1978, pp. 159-175). However, we can readily understand that making activities such as this popular will be an uphill struggle with both members of the profession and most of our students or clients.
There seems to be no other way to get at this problem, however, other than by (1) selecting a wider body of activities of an individual and dual nature where cooperative effort is stressed more than competition, and (2) doing everything in our power to lessen the aggressive behaviors so evident in many of our team sports, while at the same time rewarding behavior that evidences fair play, sportsmanship, and living up to the spirit (as well as the letter) of the rules. In other words, we need lesson and coaching plans and teaching strategies that will emphasize and possibly heighten the compassionate attitudes and behaviors toward oneself and the people with whom one is playing. For example, even in Canadian hockey the teams line up after a game and shake hands and exchange a few words with members of the other team. Why couldn't that become a common practice in all competitive sport starting with the "collision" sports such as football, wrestling, and (now even) basketball?
Our North American (largely U.S.A.) "mentality" and attitudes in competitive sport could well be compared with some of the non-aggressive attitudes and behaviors displayed in selected other countries from an international standpoint (e.g., the "friendship approach" evident earlier in China). On the other hand, not so very long ago the ex-British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher felt constrained to call for an urgent report on ongoing weekend violence by British soccer fans in Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany, amid a new wave of anger and shame at the notorious behavior of the country's soccer fans abroad" (The London
SPECIFIC PROGRAM RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Keeping in mind (1) that our program should be directed to developmental physical activity in sport, exercise, and related expressive activites for people of all ages and conditions, and (2) that there is an urgent need to elevate compassionate-cooperative behavior to a level never deemed necessary before while discouraging and downplaying excessive violence, intimidation, unsportsmanlike conduct, and ignoring the spirit of the rules, what specific recommendations can be made at this time? Building on and adapting the
tentative "principles," recommended by Huelster (1982, p. 19), the following recommendations are offered for serious consideration:
1. We should stress continually the cooperative elements and the need for more cooperative play in competitive games and sports.
2. We should reward through a variety of forms of recognition those who epitomize the qualities of fair play and sportsmanship that we wish to encourage.
3. We should make every effort to cope with overly aggressive competitive behaviors by redirecting them into more responsible cooperative ones. (In this regard, the profession should be exerting direct pressure on rules-making bodies to make sincere efforts to eliminate undue violence and aggression from their sports.)
4. We should insert the concept of "individual freedom" to a much greater extent in sport and physical education programs by encouraging students to select freely the motor skills and play forms they want to learn. (Understand that this recommendation does not apply to the student who seemingly doesn't want to be involved and possibly thereby improve his/her quality of life by developing such knowledge and competency.)
5. We should broaden program offerings to include more basic and exploratory motor skills such as (a) exercise patterns for physiological and/or psychological benefits, (b) body mechanics and relaxation techniques, (c) swimming and water safety knowledge and techniques, (d) lifetime individual and dual sports, (e) risk sports,
and (f) expressive movement activities including folk, social, and modern dance.
6. We should, while developing such program offerings as in No.5 above, use teaching and coaching strategies involving task-setting and problem-solving whenever appropriate. In the process, we should help students and clients to set performance-attainment goals beyond their expectations so as to promote the development of self-confidence.
CONCLUDING STATEMENT
There are many social forces or influences which have become persistent historical problems that impact upon society and education directly (Zeigler, 1988, pp. 255-292). These problems are identified as (1) the influence of values and norms, (2) the type of political state, (3) the influence of nationalism, (4) the influence of economics, (5) the impact of organized religion, and (6) the need for ecological awareness. Recently Zeigler added two more social forces to the growing list of persistent problems: (7) the impact of science and technology, and (8) the need for a search for world peace.
It will be inordinately difficult to convince the sport and physical education profession to follow enthusiastically the recommendations that have been made here. It will be especially difficult to persuade the many sport coaches who do not identify primarily with the organized sport and physical education profession. Nevertheless, the goal of improved international understanding and eventual world peace is so vital, so all-compassing as we think of present trends and what may happen in the twenty-first century, that we should all think this subject through for ourselves with great care. As so often seems to be the case, we can't simply leave it to the other fellow to do this for us. We must work and strive freely, consciously, and openly as true professionals to employ sport and related physical activity serve humankind. Any other choice is unthinkable.
REFERENCES
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Brameld, T. (1956). Toward a reconstructed philosophy of education. NY: Dryden Press.
Cressman, J. (1988, June 14). Minor hockey gets tough on boarding. The London Free Press, p. 1.
Violence alarms Thatcher. (1988, June 14). The London Free Press, p. C2.
Eckhardt, W. (1972). Compassion: Toward a science of value. Oakville, ON: Canadian Peace Research Institute Press.
Huelster, L.J. (1982). Social relevance perspective for sport and physical education. In Physical education and sport: An introduction (E.F. Zeigler, Ed. & Au.). (pp. 1-22). Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.
Metheny, E. (1965). Connotations of movement in sport and dance. Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown.
Naisbitt, J. (1982). Megatrends: Ten new directions transforming our lives. NY: Warner Books.
Naisbitt, J. & Aburdene, P. (1990) Megatrends 2000: Ten new directions for the 1990's. NY: Wm. Morrow.
Orlick, T. (1978). Winning through cooperation: Competitive insanity--cooperative alternative. Washington, DC: Acropolis Books.
Playboy interview: George Steinbrenner. (May 1991). Playboy, 38, 5:63-80, 171.
Zeigler, E.F. (1979). Issues in North American sport and physical education. Washington, DC: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.
Zeigler, E.F. (ed. & au.). (1988). History of physical education and sport (Rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing Co.
This material was taken from the prologue to a text titled Physical Education and Kinesiology in North America: Professional & Scholarly Foundations. Earle Zeigler edited it and authored several sections. There were nine contributions by outstanding people in the field. It was published by Stipes, Champaign. IL. USA. For further information, please go to www.earlezeigler.com and click on Stipes at the bottom of the home page.
